A short executive functioning questionnaire in the context of early childhood screening: psychometric properties.

Early childhood executive functioning (EF) predicts later adjustment and academic achievement. However, measuring EF consistently and efficiently across settings in early childhood can be challenging. Most researchers use task-based measures of EF, but these methods present practical challenges that impede implementation in some settings. The current study of 380 3-5-year-old children in the United States evaluated the psychometric properties of a new 14-item parent-reported measure of EF in a diverse urban school district. This questionnaire aimed to capture a normative range of EF skills in ecologically valid contexts. There was evidence for two specific subscales - one that measures children's EF challenges and another that measures children's EF skills. Results suggested that several items demonstrated differential item functioning by age and race. After adjusting for measurement differences across demographic groups and controlling for age at screening, the EF challenges subscale was more strongly related to task-based measures of EF than was the EF skills subscale. EF challenges predicted third-grade math achievement, controlling for demographic variables and a performance-based measure of children's early cognitive and academic skills. Results suggest that this parent report of EF could be a useful and effective early childhood screening tool.

Emergence and evolution of developmental resilience science over half a century.

This reflection on the history and future of developmental resilience science (DRS) highlights its co-emergence with developmental psychopathology (DP), as well as the roles of this journal and its founding editor, Dante Cicchetti, in the evolution of these intertwined domains of scholarship. A remarkable constellation of scholars at the University of Minnesota shaped the course of both conceptual frameworks and their dissemination. I describe fundamental assumptions common to DP and DRS frameworks that reflect their common roots and the pervasive influence of systems theory on developmental science. I describe four waves of DRS and key principles of DRS at the present time. In conclusion, I consider the possibility that a fifth wave of DRS is emerging with a focus on understanding patterns of multisystem, multilevel processes of resilience and their implications for interventions in the context of interacting, interdependent, and complex adaptive systems. I close this commentary with questions for future research and a hopeful outlook on the future of human resilience.

Predictive Validity of the NIH Toolbox Executive Function Measures with Developmental Extensions from Early Childhood to Third Grade Achievement.

The National Institutes of Health Toolbox includes two executive function measures: the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) and the Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test. Developmental extension (Dext) versions were created with easier levels for younger and more disadvantaged children. Although research on early (E-Prime) and later (iPad) versions of the Dext measures demonstrated their short-term validity, this study investigated their longer-term predictive validity. Participants included 402 children (Mage = 55.02 months) who completed the DCCS-Dext and Flanker-Dext (E-Prime) during early childhood screening and achievement tests in the third grade. Both measures significantly predicted math and reading scores among diverse groups of children.

Adaptation in Young Military Recruits: Protocol for the Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) Prospective Longitudinal Study.

BACKGROUND: Military services provide a unique opportunity for studying resilience, a dynamic process of successful adaptation (ie, doing well in terms of functioning and symptoms) in response to significant adversity. Despite the tremendous interest in positive adaptation among military service members, little is known about the processes underlying their resilience. Understanding the neurobiological, cognitive, and social mechanisms underlying adaptive functioning following military stressor exposure is essential for enhancing the resilience of military service members. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of the Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) longitudinal study is to characterize the trajectories of positive adaptation among young military recruits in response to basic combat training (BCT), a well-defined, uniform, and 10-week period of intense stress (aim 1), and identify promotive and protective processes contributing to individual variations in resilience (aim 2). The secondary objective is to investigate the pathways by which neurobehavioral markers of self-regulation assessed using electroencephalography and magnetic resonance imaging contribute to adaptive trajectories (aim 3). METHODS: ARMOR is an ongoing, prospective longitudinal cohort study of young military recruits who recently joined the National Guard but have not yet shipped out for BCT. Participants (N=1201) are assessed at 5 time points over the initial >2 years of military service beginning before BCT (baseline) and followed up at 2 weeks and 6, 12, and 18 months after BCT. Participants complete web-based questionnaires assessing vulnerability and protective factors, mental health, and socioemotional functioning at each time point and a battery of neurocognitive tests at time 0. A subset of participants also complete structured diagnostic interviews and additional self-report measures and perform neurobehavioral tasks before and after BCT during electroencephalography sessions and before BCT only during magnetic resonance imaging sessions. RESULTS: This UG3/UH3 project was initially funded in August 2017, with the UG3 pilot work completed at the end of 2018. The UH3 phase of the project was funded in March 2019. Study enrollment for the UH3 phase began on April 14, 2019, and ended on October 16, 2021. A total of 1201 participants are enrolled in the study. Follow-up data collection for the UH3 phase is ongoing and projected to continue through February 2024. We will disseminate the findings through conferences, webinars, open access publications, and communications with participants and stakeholders. CONCLUSIONS: The ARMOR study provides a rich data set to identify the predictors and mechanisms of resilient and nonresilient outcomes in the context of military stressors, which are intended to empirically inform the development of prevention and intervention strategies to enhance the resilience of military trainees and potentially other young people facing significant life challenges. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/51235.

Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) Prospective Longitudinal Study of Adaptation in Young Military Recruits: Protocol and rationale for methods and measures.

Background: Military service provides a unique opportunity for studying resilience, a dynamic process of successful adaptation (i.e., doing well in terms of functioning and symptoms) in response to significant adversity. Despite tremendous interest in positive adaptation among military service members, little is known about the processes underlying their resilience. Understanding neurobiological, cognitive, and social mechanisms underlying adaptive functioning following military stressor exposure is essential to enhance the resilience of military service members. Objectives: The primary objective of the Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) longitudinal study is to characterize trajectories of positive adaptation among young military recruits in response to Basic Combat Training (BCT), a well-defined, uniform, 10-week period of intense stress (Aim 1) and identify promotive and protective processes contributing to individual variations in resilience (Aim 2). The secondary objective is to investigate pathways by which neurobehavioral markers of self-regulation assessed by electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contribute to adaptive trajectories (Aim 3). Methods: ARMOR is an ongoing, prospective longitudinal cohort study of young military recruits who recently joined the National Guard but have not yet shipped for BCT. Participants (N=1,201) are assessed at five timepoints over the initial 2+ years of military service beginning before BCT (baseline) and followed up at 2 weeks, 6, 12, and 18 months post-BCT. At each time point, participants complete online questionnaires assessing vulnerability and protective factors, mental health and social-emotional functioning, and, at Time 0 only, a battery of neurocognitive tests. A subset of participants also complete structured diagnostic interviews, additional self-report measures, and perform neurobehavioral tasks before and after BCT during EEG sessions, and, at pre-BCT only, during MRI sessions. Results: Study enrollment began April 14, 2019 and ended in October 16, 2021. A total of 1,201 participants are enrolled in the study (68.9% male; mean age = 18.9, SD = 3.0). Follow-up data-collection is ongoing and projected to continue through March 2024. We will disseminate findings through conferences, webinars, open access publications, and communications with participants and stakeholders. Conclusions: Results are expected to elucidate how young military recruits adapt to military stressors during the initial years of military service. Understanding positive adaptation of military recruits in the face of BCT has implications for developing prevention and intervention strategies to enhance resilience of military trainees and potentially other young people facing significant life challenges.

Reprint of: Homelessness and child protection involvement: Temporal links and risks to student attendance and school mobility.

BACKGROUND: The experience of homelessness and child protection involvement pose risks to children's school success. Elucidating processes by which these interrelated systems affect child well-being is important for guiding policy and practice. OBJECTIVE: This study examines the temporal relation between emergency shelter or transitional housing use and child protection involvement among school-aged children. We evaluated effects of both risk indicators on school attendance and school mobility. PARTICIPANT AND SETTING: Using integrated administrative data, we identified 3278 children (ages 4 to 15) whose families used emergency or transitional housing in Hennepin and Ramsey County of Minnesota during the 2014 and 2015 academic years. A propensity-score-matched comparison group of 2613 children who did not use emergency or transitional housing. METHOD: Through a series of logistic regressions and generalized estimating equations, we tested the temporal associations of emergency/transitional housing and child protection involvement as well as how both experiences affected school attendance and mobility. RESULTS: Experiences of emergency or transitional housing often proceeded or occurred concurrently with child protection involvement and increased the likelihood of child protection services. Emergency or transitional housing and child protection involvement posed risks for lower school attendance and greater school mobility. CONCLUSIONS: A multisystem approach to assist families across social services may be important for stabilizing children's housing and bolstering their success at school. A two-generation approach focused on residential and school stability and enhancing family resources could boost adaptive success of family members across contexts.

Homelessness and child protection involvement: Temporal links and risks to student attendance and school mobility.

BACKGROUND: The experience of homelessness and child protection involvement pose risks to children's school success. Elucidating processes by which these interrelated systems affect child well-being is important for guiding policy and practice. OBJECTIVE: This study examines the temporal relation between emergency shelter or transitional housing use and child protection involvement among school-aged children. We evaluated effects of both risk indicators on school attendance and school mobility. PARTICIPANT AND SETTING: Using integrated administrative data, we identified 3278 children (ages 4 to 15) whose families used emergency or transitional housing in Hennepin and Ramsey County of Minnesota during the 2014 and 2015 academic years. A propensity-score-matched comparison group of 2613 children who did not use emergency or transitional housing. METHOD: Through a series of logistic regressions and generalized estimating equations, we tested the temporal associations of emergency/transitional housing and child protection involvement as well as how both experiences affected school attendance and mobility. RESULTS: Experiences of emergency or transitional housing often proceeded or occurred concurrently with child protection involvement and increased the likelihood of child protection services. Emergency or transitional housing and child protection involvement posed risks for lower school attendance and greater school mobility. CONCLUSIONS: A multisystem approach to assist families across social services may be important for stabilizing children's housing and bolstering their success at school. A two-generation approach focused on residential and school stability and enhancing family resources could boost adaptive success of family members across contexts.

Advancing research on early autism through an integrated risk and resilience perspective.

To date, a deficit-oriented approach dominates autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research, including studies of infant siblings of children with ASD at high risk (HR) for the disabilities associated with this disorder. Despite scientific advances regarding early ASD-related risk, there remains little systematic investigation of positive development, limiting the scope of research and quite possibly a deeper understanding of pathways toward and away from ASD-related impairments. In this paper, we argue that integrating a resilience framework into early ASD research has the potential to enhance knowledge on prodromal course, phenotypic heterogeneity, and developmental processes of risk and adaptation. We delineate a developmental systems resilience framework with particular reference to HR infants. To illustrate the utility of a resilience perspective, we consider the "female protective effect" and other evidence of adaptation in the face of ASD-related risk. We suggest that a resilience framework invites focal questions about the nature, timing, levels, interactions, and mechanisms by which positive adaptation occurs in relation to risk and developmental pathways toward and away from ASD-related difficulties. We conclude with recommendations for future research, including more focus on adaptive development and multisystem processes, pathways away from disorder, and reconsideration of extant evidence within an integrated risk-and-resilience framework.

Hidden talents in harsh environments.

Although early-life adversity can undermine healthy development, children growing up in harsh environments may develop intact, or even enhanced, skills for solving problems in high-adversity contexts (i.e., "hidden talents"). Here we situate the hidden talents model within a larger interdisciplinary framework. Summarizing theory and research on hidden talents, we propose that stress-adapted skills represent a form of adaptive intelligence that enables individuals to function within the constraints of harsh, unpredictable environments. We discuss the alignment of the hidden talents model with current knowledge about human brain development following early adversity; examine potential applications of this perspective to multiple sectors concerned with youth from harsh environments, including education, social services, and juvenile justice; and compare the hidden talents model with contemporary developmental resilience models. We conclude that the hidden talents approach offers exciting new directions for research on developmental adaptations to childhood adversity, with translational implications for leveraging stress-adapted skills to more effectively tailor education, jobs, and interventions to fit the needs and potentials of individuals from a diverse range of life circumstances. This approach affords a well-rounded view of people who live with adversity that avoids stigma and communicates a novel, distinctive, and strength-based message.

Father-child attachment in Black families: risk and protective processes.

Theoretical and empirical work on Black fathering has been grounded in a deficit perspective. Scholarship has focused on absenteeism and incarceration of Black fathers, neglecting their positive roles as well as the structural inequalities and challenges Black fathers face. This paper highlights the significance of positive fathering in Black youth development, with a focus on the protective influences of attachment relationships. Structural and proximal processes that may support or undermine this relationship are delineated, as well as how theory and methods on attachment can be extended to support research on Black families and youth development. Culturally and contextually grounded research on Black fathering may lead to refinement in theory and measurement of attachment. Advancing research on father-child relationships in Black families requires greater attention to processes that promote positive fathering and strengthen father-child attachment bonds, particularly in the context of structural racism.

Emotional reactivity and parenting in families experiencing homelessness.

Parents are key protective systems in the lives of children experiencing homelessness. Evidence suggests that parent emotional reactivity, expression, and regulation play a critical role in promoting adaptive parenting behaviors. Studies of emotional reactivity in parents utilize different methods, including self-report, observations, and physiological measures. However, these methods are rarely evaluated together, particularly among disadvantaged families. The present study examined how subjective (i.e., self-report), observed, and physiological measures of parent emotional reactivity relate to each other and to observed parenting behaviors in problem-solving and teaching parent-child interaction tasks. Participants included fifty 4- to 7-year-old children and their caregivers staying in an emergency homeless shelter. Observed and subjective emotional reactivity were largely uncorrelated, except for positive emotions during problem-solving tasks. Adaptive parenting behavior was related to lower scores on measures of subjective and observed negative emotions and higher observed scores for positive emotions during problem-solving tasks, as well as higher observed scores of positive emotions during teaching tasks. Physiological reactivity was not related to parenting behaviors. Results suggest that associations of emotional reactivity with parenting behavior depend on the context of the parent-child interaction and how emotional reactivity is measured. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Family risk and resilience in the context of cascading COVID-19 challenges: Commentary on the special issue.

Articles comprising this special issue on parenting and family dynamics during the COVID-19 pandemic document the profound disruptions to family life posed by a cascading multisystem catastrophe as well as the capacity of families for resilience. Results of these studies during the first year of the pandemic align well with theory and past evidence on developmental risk, vulnerability, and resilience in families contending with large-scale complex disasters, while also illustrating methodological advances, such as technologies for remote data collection. The scope and duration of the global pandemic pose extraordinary, cumulative, and variable challenges to family life, highlighting the importance of preexisting as well as unfolding adaptive capabilities embedded in multiple interacting systems. Findings illustrate the importance of relationships, the vulnerability of families already at risk, and the protective role of social support for parenting. This issue represents an exciting harbinger of knowledge to come on risk and resilience processes from multisystem, multidisciplinary, and multicultural studies of the pandemic and its effects. There are critical gaps to fill and many questions yet to answer when so many systems critical to human well-being and development are disrupted, and knowledge is needed to prepare and respond more effectively to inevitable disasters of the future. It will be essential to include more diverse and representative samples, methods amenable to dynamic modeling of change and systematic aggregation of findings across studies, and long-term assessments. This special issue reflects the progress, complexities, and promise of family-focused research on risk and resilience in the time of COVID-19. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Intergenerational transmission and prevention of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs).

In recent years, research and practice on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have shifted from delineating effects of ACEs on adulthood health problems to preventing ACEs in children. Nonetheless, little attention has focused on how parents' own childhood experiences, adverse or positive, may influence the transmission of ACEs across generations. Children's risk for ACEs and potential for resilience may be linked to the early child-rearing experiences of their parents carried forward into parenting practices. Additionally, parents with multiple ACEs may have PTSD symptoms, an under-recognized mediator of risk in the intergenerational transmission of ACEs. Guided by developmental psychopathology and attachment theory with an emphasis on risk and resilience, we argue that a more comprehensive understanding of parents' childhood experiences is needed to inform prevention of ACEs in their children. Part I of this review applies risk and resilience concepts to pathways of intergenerational ACEs, highlighting parental PTSD symptoms as a key mediator, and promotive or protective processes that buffer children against intergenerational risk. Part II examines empirical findings indicating that parents' positive childhood experiences counteract intergenerational ACEs. Part III recommends clinically-sensitive screening of ACEs and positive childhood experiences in parents and children. Part IV addresses tertiary prevention strategies that mitigate intergenerational ACEs and promote positive parent-child relationships.

NIH Toolbox executive function measures with developmental extensions: Reliability and validity with preschoolers in emergency housing.

Research has shown that executive function (EF) skills are associated with resilience in preschoolers experiencing risk and adversity, but these studies have typically relied on large batteries of tasks to measure children's EF skills. There is a need for brief, reliable EF assessments that can be used in the field with diverse young children. The current study assessed the validity and test-retest reliability of two tablet-based EF tasks from the NIH Toolbox: The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) and the Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test, each with a developmental extension (Dext) that is triggered when a child struggles with the standardized versions. Dext versions include easier levels intended to improve task accessibility for younger and disadvantaged children. Eighty-six preschoolers residing in emergency housing participated in two study sessions about one week apart, completing tablet-based DCCS-Dext and Flanker-Dext tasks, along with a table-top EF task (Peg-Tapping) and measures of vocabulary and numeracy. The majority of participants triggered the Dext portion of the DCCS and almost half triggered the Dext portion of the Flanker, underscoring the need for extensions of the Toolbox EF tasks to lower the floor of these measures. The Dext EF measures were positively associated with Peg-Tapping, after controlling for age and vocabulary, indicating construct validity. They were also correlated with math achievement, suggesting criterion validity. DCCS-Dext and Flanker-Dext showed moderate test-retest reliability after one week. Together, these findings demonstrate the value of developmental extensions for assessing EF skills among children experiencing risk and adversity.

Resilience in Development and Psychopathology: Multisystem Perspectives.

Resilience science in psychology and related fields emerged from clinical research on risk for psychopathology in the 1970s and matured over the ensuing decades with advances in theory, methods, and knowledge. Definitions and models of resilience shifted to reflect the expanding influence of developmental systems theory and the growing need to integrate knowledge about resilience across levels and disciplines to address multisystem threats. Resilience is defined for scalability and integrative purposes as the capacity of a dynamic system to adapt successfully through multisystem processes to challenges that threaten system function, survival, or development. Striking alignment of resilience factors observed in human systems, ranging from individuals to communities, suggests the possibility of networked, multisystem protective factors that work in concert. Evidence suggests that there may be resilience factors that provide transdiagnostic protection against the effects of adverse childhood experiences on risk for psychopathology. Multisystem studies of resilience offer promising directions for future research and its applications to promote mental health and positive development in children and youth at risk for psychopathology.

Self-regulation as promotive for academic achievement in young children across risk contexts.

The link between self-regulation and academic achievement in young children is well-documented. However, few studies have examined the extent to which different aspects of self-regulation are more important for early numeracy and literacy for those in contexts of high cumulative risk, such as children experiencing homelessness. In the current study, 116 children ages 4;0-7;1 years (58 residing in an emergency homeless shelter and 58 from a community participant pool) completed assessments of math and reading, as well as multiple measures of self-regulation: executive function (EF), emotion regulation (ER), and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). Parents completed a questionnaire about their children's behavioral regulation. We examined whether sample (i.e., shelter or community) moderated the association between each aspect of self-regulation and academic outcomes. Results showed a main effect of EF skills on early numeracy, and this relation did not differ across samples. Intervention efforts to promote academic competencies might specifically target EF in those who struggle with early EF skills regardless of risk context.

Developmental cascade effects of a parenting-focused program for divorced families on competence in emerging adulthood.

This 15-year longitudinal follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of a parenting-focused preventive intervention for divorced families examined cascade models of program effects on offsprings' competence. It was hypothesized that intervention-induced improvements in parenting would lead to better academic, work, peer, and romantic competence in emerging adulthood through effects on behavior problems and competencies during adolescence. Families (N = 240) participated in the 11-session program or literature control condition when children were ages 9-12. Data were drawn from assessments at pretest, posttest, and follow-ups at 3 and 6 months and 6 and 15 years. Results showed that initial intervention effects of parenting on externalizing problems in adolescence cascaded to work outcomes in adulthood. Parenting effects also directly impacted work success. For work outcomes and peer competence, intervention effects were moderated by initial risk level; the program had greater effects on youths with higher risk at program entry. In addition, intervention effects on parenting led to fewer externalizing problems that in turn cascaded to better academic outcomes, which showed continuity into emerging adulthood. Results highlight the potential for intervention effects of the New Beginnings Program to cascade over time to affect adult competence in multiple domains, particularly for high-risk youths.

Resilience of children in disasters: A multisystem perspective.

Interest in resilience is surging in research, policy and practice as threats from disasters rise and humanity confronts a global pandemic. This commentary highlights the importance of defining resilience for portability across system levels and disciplines in order to integrate knowledge and prepare adequately for the challenges posed to children and youth by multisystem disasters. A scalable definition of resilience is recommended: The capacity of a dynamic system to adapt successfully to challenges that threaten the function, survival or development of the system. Major determinants of adaptation among young people in the context of disaster are highlighted, including variations in adversity exposure dose, developmental timing, individual differences and the socio-ecological systems of children's lives that can be mobilised in response. Adaptation of children in disasters depends on the resilience of interconnected systems, including families, schools, communities and policy sectors. Implications of a multisystem perspective for disaster risk reduction and preparedness are discussed with a focus on nurturing the resilience of children and their societies for challenges in the near term and long into the future.